Isomers are compounds which have the same molecular formula (i.e. the same number of carbons, hydrogens and oxygens etc.) but the arrangement of atoms in space differs. This different arrangement of atoms can lead to significantly different chemical properties of a compound for example ethanol, C2H6O has a boiling point of 78 °C whereas dimethyl ether, an isomer of ethanol and also having molecular formula C2H6O has a boiling point of –25 °C. This is known as structural isomerism and therefore ethanol and dimethyl ether are structural isomers of each other.

In addition to knowing the molecular formula and which isomer we have, we also need to consider how the atoms in the molecule are spatially arranged because molecules are not flat. The arrangement of the atoms in space can have a significant effect on the properties of the compound for example its boiling point or physical characteristics. Fumaric acid (C4H4O4) has a melting point of 299–300 °C, whereas maleic acid (C4H4O4) has a melting point of 140–142 °C. The only difference is how the substituents are arranged on either side of the double bond (i.e. are they on the same side or on different sides). Isomers which have identical constitution but are only differing in the arrangement of their atoms in space are called stereoisomers. Stereoisomers which are mirror images of each other are known as chiral compounds and stereoisomers which are not mirror images of each other as diastereoisomers.

Chiral compounds are important as chirality is present in nature. If a compound is chiral it has a non-superimposable mirror image. Hands and feet as examples of chiral things; if you try and put your left hand in your right glove it will not fit. One everyday example of chirality is the smell of oranges and lemons. Both the molecules responsible for the smell have the same molecular formula and arrangement of atoms in 2-dimensional space, but in 3-dimensional space they are quite different.
Chemists have only recently started to have an appreciation of the importance of 3-dimensional spatial arrangement of atoms. One famous incident was the development of the anti morning-sickness drug Thalidomide, which was marketed in 1957. When it was created it was a mixture of enantiomers; one enantiomer cured morning sickness whereas the other produced birth defects. Nowadays, all drugs which are marketed have to be subjected to rigorous testing to determine exactly which diastereomer (or enantiomer depending if it is the mirror image or not) is active and reactions need to be developed which ensure that only the desired compound is developed, which was the aim of this project.

The project involved taking a known compound containing atoms for which we already knew the spatial arrangement and then reacting it with another compound to generate one of two products. We tried to bias the reaction towards making one product over another by using different additives (to help the reaction run faster) and running the reaction at a range of temperatures. The project was successful with us being able to bias the reaction more towards one product than another, therefore allowing us to choose which product we would like to have from a reaction. This is important because it allows chemists to make bespoke molecules for specific uses and, in the case of medicinal chemistry, reduces the potential risk of harmful side-effects caused by having a mixture of molecules with different spatial arrangements, which was the problem with Thalidomide.

Robert Arnold

As exams came to an end I began my 6 week research placement looking into multilingualism in Reading. The British Isles is home to over 350 languages. Several misconceptions (myths) about multilingualism exist (often thanks to the media); sometimes these myths view multilingualism as good thing and other times as a bad thing. So what we hoped to discover was people’s attitudes towards various myths on multilingualism. I have been supervised and worked alongside Dr Christiana Themistocleous.

It was decided we would obtain  data through a questionnaire. So after the technical inductions were over, my first task was to do some background research and design the first draft of the questionnaire. It was really challenging to create the perfect questionnaire when this is the most important part of our study. So many books, 10 days and 3 drafts later we did have a questionnaire ready to be distributed. I had also used some new software to create an online counterpart – hoping to get our questionnaire out to as many as people as possible.

For the next 2 weeks I became one of those really annoying people who stops you in the street, the shops, libraries, leisure centre and in the middle of your lunch (I’m sorry!). But, with this and continuous social media posting, we eventually managed to gain over 200 responses to our questionnaire from people living in Reading. This was an incredible task that forces you to practise your people skills, use initiative and gain confidence.

With all this data, I faced the challenge of using SPSS, but with some help (Thank you to Christiana and Google) I eventually inputted all the data on SPSS and started the analysis. Amazingly, over 50% of our participants were multilingual and between them they spoke 24 different languages. It was clear as well that those who live in Reading believe it is a multilingual town, over 90% believed so! We obtained interesting data in relation to the intelligence of multilinguals, their job prospects, the unity within the UK and what makes people multilingual…but I’m not going to give away all our findings.

The UROP process was interesting, challenging and fun. You get an insight into research and further careers in academia you wouldn’t gain anywhere else and you are given so much responsibility not just the designated tea-maker. I have learnt so much in terms of our findings but even more about my skills and myself!

Laura Armstrong

My name is Maria and I am studying Archaeology. My placement involved carrying out a geoarchaeological assessment using boreholes which were takenfrom Bestansur, an archaeological site in Iraq dating to the Neolithic period (7500 BC).

My placement took place within the context of the Central Zagros Archaeological Project (CZAP) which researches the origins and early development of sedentary settlement and domestication of plants and animals in the early Neolithic period (10,000-6500 BC) in the Fertile Crescent (Near East), and is co-directed by my supervisors Professor Roger Matthews and Dr Wendy Matthews.

The main aims of my research were to enhance our knowledge and understanding of the nature of the sub-surface stratigraphy of the site, and to evaluate the potential of the sedimentary sequences for providing a reconstruction of the environmental history of the site and its environs.

In order to achieve these aims, I had to record the lithostratigraphy of each of the 12 boreholes which included describing the sediment, dividing it into different layers, and recording down the sediment colour, the presence of any inclusions (artefact or bones) or traces of burned clay or charcoal.

This would help to clarify the nature of the sub-surface stratigraphy across the site, and provide a preliminary reconstruction of the sedimentary history.

To enhance the results of the lithostratigraphic descriptions, three boreholes were selected for organic matter and calcium carbonate content analysis. Furthermore, a particle size analysis was carried out to find out the percentage of sand, silt and clay present in the sediments in order to see changes in sediment composition over time.

The part which I enjoyed the most was learning how to use Adobe Illustrator to make illustrations that would reflect my lithostratigraphic results.

The next step was to prepare microscope slides for the pollen grain, spores, phytolith and diatom assessment. This would help in providing a detailed reconstruction of the botanical and hydrological history of the site.

I was taught how to identify different microfossils (pollen grains, spores, phytoliths and diatoms) and what information they can provide about the environment and human activities. For instance, the presence of certain spores in the samples could indicate animal dung which does provide evidence for human occupation.

Finally, the last step of my placement consisted of combining all of the results to see the bigger picture which was for me the most interesting part of my placement. It’s like a jigsaw puzzle where you have to place every piece together to see the overall picture.

Throughout my placement, I was taught everything and helped by the QUEST team.

Overall, I really enjoyed my placement. It was a great experience where I learned new skills, met other people who had similar interests, and got a chance to experience a new aspect of archaeology.

Maria Rabbani

Little is known about reptiles and amphibians in urban areas, this became increasingly apparent when I tried to consult the available literature for extra information. The task I was set was to carry out reptile and pond surveys and also to questionnaire the public in an effort to build sufficient data about the suitability of habitat patches in the suburban areas of Woodley and Earley. All of this was done with, and may not have been done near so well without, the volunteered assistance of James Howsam, recent graduate of Zoology at the University of Reading.

Through the first four weeks I also attended the meetings of Mark’s research group. Here I cooperated with Stephanie Falk, a visiting student whose work my efforts were also in support of. The meetings allowed me to receive guidance on my project and feedback on my work. When it came to the end of the fieldwork we could all agree based on the reports of findings that I provided that it was time to wrap it up as the season had reached its end for that side of summer.

What followed the field work was perhaps an even more exciting opportunity. When the results came back we found that certain features of the habitats such as their size and diversity of structures were crucial for their suitability to reptiles and amphibians. I am currently in the process of completing this paper which will be submitted to a journal for taught students. The chance to do this has turned the UROP from an exercise that would have introduced me to fieldwork and some features of research into a potentially life changing experience. If I am successful and get my work published then this could mean great things for my future.

Best things about the UROP:

• Seeing a side of urban green spaces that is very rarely visible
• Taking charge of your workload
• Opportunities to see behind the scenes of research
• Chances to see extra presentations and other events within the school to enhance your learning

Things that took some getting used to:

• Early starts for the morning survey

Evan Roderick, UROP in Biological Sciences

My name is Rosie and I’m studying chemistry at the university. My 10 week EPSRC project is based on mass spectrometry, a technique for analysing the mass to charge ratio of ions, and I have been focussing on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation (MALDI), which is a widely used ionisation technique for biological mass spectrometry.

To run an analysis, an analyte sample is spotted on a target plate with a matrix, which is typically a weak organic acid dissolved in a solvent. The droplet is dried to allow solvent evaporation and this will result in a solid matrix/analyte crystalline sample. The target plate is then inserted into the mass spectrometer and a laser is fired at the sample. The purpose of the matrix is to absorb UV light form the laser and this leads to ionisation of the analyte. The result from this analysis is a spectrum showing peaks at different mass to charge ratios and their relative intensities.

There are disadvantages to using a solid sample for analysis, for example, the analyte may not be evenly distributed throughout the crystals, so there is research into using liquid matrices as an alternative. For liquid MALDI, there are differences in sample preparation and the addition of glycerol means that the sample is still a liquid droplet after solvent evaporation.

My project is to investigate the effect of various surfaces and surface structures to see how ionisation of the analyte is affected and to see differences in the quality and quantity of the ion signal. I have been provided with a variety of target plates of different materials and properties to experiment with and see how these compare to the ion signal I get when I use a conventional stainless steel target plate. I have also been provided with a range of films to stick on to target plates and to put my sample on top of, as this may also have an effect on the intensity of ions.

Sample preparation is a crucial step for successful MALDI analysis so I have spent a significant amount of my project mastering the preparation of first solid matrices and then liquid matrices, experimenting with different solvents and seeing what matrices gave me the best results.

I was really nervous about starting this project as I only had a basic knowledge in mass spectrometry, but this summer I have learnt so much more about analytical chemistry and it has also been really useful in helping me decide what I’d like to do after university. It has given me more confidence in my lab skills and I’m less nervous about doing my final year project now that I’ve had research experience.

Rosie Nicholson